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Explain Diagrams with Words Presented by Audio Narration Ruth Clark, Frank Nguyen, and John Sweller 4 In this excerpt from the book, Efficiency in learning: Evidence-based guidelines to manage cognitive load, Ruth Clark, Frank Nguyen, and John Sweller, present one guideline for developing audio-visual instruction. Using cognitive load theory research on modality effect and examples, they explore how and when to explain diagrams with words presented in audio narration.  Some of their research-based recommendations include: 1) explain visual content- either diagrams or text with words presented in audio narration when the tasks or content is complex and 2) add explanatory diagrams to words when the goal is to help learners build a deep understanding.